What are we building?

A hardening pattern you can apply to any existing Compose stack: drop capabilities entirely and hand back only the bare minimum, block privilege escalation with no-new-privileges, mount the filesystem read-only, and cap memory and process count.

The practice object is an nginx 1.31-alpine behind your Traefik. By the end it runs without a single capability, as an unprivileged user, with a read-only root filesystem – and still serves perfectly normally. Tested on Debian 13 with Docker 29.8.2 and Compose v5.6.0.

The benefit is concrete: when an application has a hole, hardening decides whether an attacker merely stands around inside the container or starts changing file ownership, loading binaries and attacking the host.

Prerequisites

• The Compose basics – we work in compose.yaml throughout.
• A hardened server with Docker; for the demo part a running Traefik reverse proxy with the proxy network and the le resolver.
• A basic grasp of users and permissions on Linux – UIDs and GIDs come up constantly here.

Step by step

Step 1: Take stock – how exposed are your containers right now?

Before changing anything, get an overview. This one-liner queries all running containers and shows the three values this recipe is about:

docker ps -q | xargs docker inspect --format \
  '{{printf "%-14s" .Name}} user={{if .Config.User}}{{.Config.User}}{{else}}root{{end}}  readonly={{.HostConfig.ReadonlyRootfs}}  cap_drop={{.HostConfig.CapDrop}}'

On a typical server that looks like this:

/traefik-traefik-1 user=root  readonly=false  cap_drop=[]

Translated: the container runs as root, may write anywhere, and holds all default capabilities. That is the Docker default – not the application’s fault.

A second look goes to the most dangerous mount of all, the Docker socket:

docker ps -q | xargs docker inspect --format '{{.Name}}{{range .Mounts}} {{.Source}}{{end}}' | grep docker.sock

/traefik-traefik-1 /opt/traefik/acme.json /var/run/docker.sock

Step 2: Why “root in the container” is a real problem

Look at who is working inside a perfectly ordinary container:

docker run --rm alpine:3 id

uid=0(root) gid=0(root) groups=0(root),0(root),1(bin),2(daemon),3(sys),4(adm),6(disk),10(wheel),11(floppy),20(dialout),26(tape),27(video)

That is the same UID 0 as on the host – separated only by namespaces, not by a different identity. And that UID 0 gets fourteen capabilities from the Docker daemon:

docker run --rm alpine:3 sh -c 'apk add -q --no-cache libcap && capsh --print | grep -E "^Current:"'

Current: cap_chown,cap_dac_override,cap_fowner,cap_fsetid,cap_kill,cap_setgid,cap_setuid,cap_setpcap,cap_net_bind_service,cap_net_raw,cap_sys_chroot,cap_mknod,cap_audit_write,cap_setfcap=ep

Capabilities are the pieces Linux split root’s former omnipotence into. cap_chown, for instance, allows changing the owner of arbitrary files – including inside a mounted host directory. That takes ten seconds to demonstrate. Create a file owned by another user:

mkdir -p /tmp/captest && echo test > /tmp/captest/datei.txt
sudo chown 1000:1000 /tmp/captest/datei.txt

Now the container may claim it:

docker run --rm -v /tmp/captest:/d alpine:3 sh -c 'chown 0:0 /d/datei.txt && echo "chown OK"'
ls -ln /tmp/captest/datei.txt

chown OK
-rw-r----- 1 0 0 5 Oct  4 23:24 /tmp/captest/datei.txt

The file now belongs to root – changed from inside a container. Take that one capability away and the attack goes nowhere:

sudo chown 1000:1000 /tmp/captest/datei.txt
docker run --rm --cap-drop CHOWN -v /tmp/captest:/d alpine:3 sh -c 'chown 0:0 /d/datei.txt'

chown: /d/datei.txt: Operation not permitted

That is exactly what least privilege means: not “abolish root”, but disarm root. Clean up the test folder:

rm -rf /tmp/captest

Step 3: Block privilege escalation with no-new-privileges

The cheapest hardening first – one line that practically never breaks anything. no-new-privileges forbids the kernel to grant a process more rights after the fact, for example via a setuid binary. The difference is directly visible:

docker run --rm alpine:3 grep NoNewPrivs /proc/self/status
docker run --rm --security-opt no-new-privileges:true alpine:3 grep NoNewPrivs /proc/self/status

NoNewPrivs:	0
NoNewPrivs:	1

With 1 there, an attacker who achieved code execution inside the container can no longer use setuid binaries as a stepping stone. In Compose that is:

    security_opt:
      - no-new-privileges:true

Step 4: Drop all capabilities – and hand back only what is needed

Now the core. The rule: take everything away first, then hand back what the application really needs, based on real error messages. With everything gone, the list is genuinely empty:

docker run --rm --cap-drop ALL alpine:3 sh -c 'apk add -q --no-cache libcap && capsh --print | grep -E "^Current:"'

Current: =

nginx then fails to start immediately. The entrypoint still works through its scripts, then it aborts – the last two lines say exactly what is missing:

docker run --rm --cap-drop ALL nginx:1.31-alpine

/docker-entrypoint.sh: Configuration complete; ready for start up
2026/09/09 19:38:42 [emerg] 1#1: chown("/var/cache/nginx/client_temp", 101) failed (1: Operation not permitted)
nginx: [emerg] chown("/var/cache/nginx/client_temp", 101) failed (1: Operation not permitted)

The image’s entrypoint wants to hand the cache directory to the nginx user – that needs CHOWN. Hand back only that one, and something instructive happens: the container runs, but does not answer.

docker run -d --name probe --cap-drop ALL --cap-add CHOWN nginx:1.31-alpine
sleep 5 && docker exec probe ps -o pid,user,comm

PID   USER     COMMAND
    1 root     nginx
   34 root     ps

Only the master process is left (PID 34 is the ps itself), not a single worker. The log reveals why:

docker logs probe 2>&1 | grep alert | tail -1

2026/09/09 19:38:42 [alert] 1#1: worker process 33 exited with fatal code 2 and cannot be respawned

Without SETUID/SETGID the master may not switch to the unprivileged nginx user, so the workers die instantly. With those two added it works:

docker rm -f probe
docker run -d --name probe --cap-drop ALL \
  --cap-add CHOWN --cap-add SETUID --cap-add SETGID nginx:1.31-alpine
sleep 5 && docker exec probe ps -o pid,user,comm

PID   USER     COMMAND
    1 root     nginx
   30 nginx    nginx
   31 nginx    nginx
   32 nginx    nginx
   33 nginx    nginx
   34 root     ps

Master as root, workers as nginx – that is how it should be. (The number of workers depends on the CPU cores; the VPS 1000 has four.) Verify what the kernel actually grants the process:

docker exec probe grep CapEff /proc/1/status
docker run --rm alpine:3 sh -c 'apk add -q --no-cache libcap && capsh --decode=00000000000000c1'

CapEff:	00000000000000c1
0x00000000000000c1=cap_chown,cap_setgid,cap_setuid

Three instead of fourteen. Don’t forget the test container:

docker rm -f probe

docker run --rm alpine:3 cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_unprivileged_port_start

0

Step 5: Mount the filesystem read-only

read_only: true makes the container’s root filesystem unwritable. Malicious code can then neither drop binaries nor tamper with configuration. The effect is blunt:

docker run --rm --read-only alpine:3 sh -c 'touch /tmp/x'

touch: /tmp/x: Read-only file system

Almost every application needs write access somewhere though. The answer is tmpfs: a RAM filesystem that disappears on restart and leaves nothing on disk.

docker run --rm --read-only --tmpfs /tmp alpine:3 sh -c 'touch /tmp/x && echo "writing OK (RAM only)"'

writing OK (RAM only)

Which paths those are is, again, what the error message tells you. For nginx:

nginx: [emerg] mkdir() "/var/cache/nginx/client_temp" failed (30: Read-only file system)

Three directories are enough: /var/cache/nginx, /var/run and /tmp.

Step 6: No root at all – the container as its own user

The premier discipline: when no root works inside the container at all, capabilities become largely moot. The nginx image already ships a nginx user with UID/GID 101.

A naive attempt fails, however:

docker run --rm --user 101:101 --cap-drop ALL --read-only \
  --tmpfs /var/cache/nginx nginx:1.31-alpine

nginx: [emerg] mkdir() "/var/cache/nginx/client_temp" failed (13: Permission denied)

The reason is inconspicuous: a tmpfs belongs to root by default, and UID 101 may not write there. You have to pass the owner when mounting:

docker run -d --name probe --user 101:101 --cap-drop ALL \
  --security-opt no-new-privileges:true --read-only \
  --tmpfs /var/cache/nginx:uid=101,gid=101 \
  --tmpfs /var/run:uid=101,gid=101 \
  --tmpfs /tmp:uid=101,gid=101 nginx:1.31-alpine
sleep 5 && docker exec probe ps -o pid,user,comm

PID   USER     COMMAND
    1 nginx    nginx
   21 nginx    nginx
   22 nginx    nginx
   23 nginx    nginx
   24 nginx    nginx
   25 nginx    ps

Now even PID 1 runs as nginx – and the three capabilities from step 4 are no longer needed, because nobody has to switch users or hand over cache directories any more. Clean up:

docker rm -f probe

Step 7: Cap memory and processes

Hardening also means that one derailed container does not take the whole server with it. Without a limit a container may claim all the host’s RAM. With a limit the OOM killer steps in – but only inside the container:

docker run -d --name oomtest --memory 128m alpine:3 sh -c 'tail /dev/zero'
sleep 8
docker inspect -f 'OOMKilled={{.State.OOMKilled}} ExitCode={{.State.ExitCode}}' oomtest

OOMKilled=true ExitCode=137

ExitCode 137 is the signature of a memory limit – remember the number, it shows up often in daily work. The counterpart against fork bombs is pids_limit:

docker run --rm --pids-limit 20 alpine:3 sh -c 'for i in $(seq 1 40); do sleep 5 & done'

sh: can't fork: Resource temporarily unavailable

docker rm -f oomtest

Step 8: The finished stack

Everything combined, using a statically served website as the example – say the output of your own website with Hugo. Create the project:

mkdir -p ~/webhard/site && cd ~/webhard

Create compose.yaml and replace YOUR_DOMAIN:

services:
  web:
    image: nginx:1.31-alpine
    container_name: web-hart
    restart: unless-stopped
    user: "101:101"
    cap_drop: [ALL]
    security_opt:
      - no-new-privileges:true
    read_only: true
    tmpfs:
      - /var/cache/nginx:uid=101,gid=101
      - /var/run:uid=101,gid=101
      - /tmp:uid=101,gid=101
    mem_limit: 128m
    pids_limit: 64
    volumes:
      - ./site:/usr/share/nginx/html:ro
    networks: [proxy]
    labels:
      - "traefik.enable=true"
      - "traefik.http.routers.hart.rule=Host(`YOUR_DOMAIN`)"
      - "traefik.http.routers.hart.entrypoints=websecure"
      - "traefik.http.routers.hart.tls.certresolver=le"
      - "traefik.http.services.hart.loadbalancer.server.port=80"

networks:
  proxy:
    external: true

The points that make the difference:

• user: "101:101" – no root in the container. The quotes matter, otherwise YAML reads the value as a sexagesimal number.
• cap_drop: [ALL] with no cap_add at all – possible because user: is set.
• read_only: true plus three tmpfs mounts with the matching UID.
• :ro on the volume – nginx only reads the website, it never has to write there.
• mem_limit and pids_limit cap the damage of a runaway process.

Because nginx now runs as UID 101 rather than root, it also has to be allowed to read the website. On a hardened server with UMASK 027 in /etc/login.defs – as the Lynis audit recommends – mkdir and echo as root create drwxr-x--- and -rw-r-----, and UID 101 can’t see any of it; the stack then answers 403 Forbidden. Hence the chmod -R a+rX site below – it makes files readable and directories traversable without making files executable, and does no harm with Debian’s default umask.

Drop in a test page and start:

echo '<h1>Hardening worked</h1>' > site/index.html
chmod -R a+rX site
docker compose up -d
docker compose ps

NAME       IMAGE               STATUS
web-hart   nginx:1.31-alpine   Up 10 seconds

Now the actual check – trust is good, docker inspect is better:

docker inspect web-hart --format 'ReadonlyRootfs={{.HostConfig.ReadonlyRootfs}}  CapDrop={{.HostConfig.CapDrop}}  SecurityOpt={{.HostConfig.SecurityOpt}}  PidsLimit={{.HostConfig.PidsLimit}}  User={{.Config.User}}'

ReadonlyRootfs=true  CapDrop=[ALL]  SecurityOpt=[no-new-privileges:true]  PidsLimit=64  User=101:101

And the counter-test that the write protection really bites:

docker exec web-hart sh -c 'touch /etc/x'

touch: /etc/x: Read-only file system

Finally from outside, through Traefik with a real certificate:

curl -sS https://YOUR_DOMAIN/

<h1>Hardening worked</h1>

A container with no capabilities, no root, no write access – serving perfectly normally. This is the pattern you now attach to your remaining stacks.

When things go wrong

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Maintenance & backups

• Hardening is per-application work, not a one-off for all. Every image needs a different minimum. Budget 15–30 minutes per stack for the “drop everything, read the log, hand back what’s needed” round – and do it once properly instead of copying values from other people’s examples. Foreign cap_add lists are almost always too generous.
• Re-check briefly after every image update. A new major version may want to write to an additional directory or switch its internal user. The container then won’t start – annoying, but quickly found when you know what to look for. Fold the check into your update process.
• The audit one-liner from step 1 belongs in your routine. Running it over all containers once a month immediately shows which stack slipped through without hardening on the last deploy.
• Defuse the Docker socket. Traefik genuinely needs it – but not for writing. A :ro on the mount is a first step, but it does not prevent starting containers via the API. The clean solution is a socket proxy: a small container that passes Traefik only the read endpoints and blocks everything else. If the socket is there just for Traefik, that is where you gain the most.
• Honest about the benefit. These measures do not prevent a break-in into the application. They make sure that “attacker can run code in a web application” does not become “attacker is root on the server”. Together with Traefik hardening in front and encrypted backups behind, that makes a resilient chain.
• Backup: no new data is involved – you back up the volume contents as before. The hardening itself lives entirely in compose.yaml, which belongs in version control anyway.